How the Eye Sees Color
Color originates in light.
Sunlight, as we perceive it, is colorless. In reality, a rainbow is testimony
to the fact that all the colors of the spectrum are present in white light. As
illustrated in the diagram below, light goes from the source (the sun) to the
object (the apple), and finally to the detector (the eye and brain).
1. All the"
invisible" colors of sunlight shine on the apple.
2. The surface of a red apple absorbs all the colored light rays, except for
those corresponding to red, and reflects this color to the human eye.
3. The eye receives the reflected red light and sends a message to the brain.
The most technically
accurate definition of color is:
"Color is the visual effect that is caused by the spectral composition of
the light emitted, transmitted, or reflected by objects."
The human eye can
see 7,000,000 colors. Some of these are eyesores. Certain colors and color
relationships can be eye irritants, cause headaches, and wreak havoc with human
vision. Other colors and color combinations are soothing. Consequently, the
appropriate use of color can maximize productivity, minimize visual fatigue,
and relax the whole body.
Which color is the
worst offender?
Yellow, pure bright
lemon yellow is the most fatiguing color. Why? The answer comes from the
physics of light and optics. More light is reflected by bright colors,
resulting in excessive stimulation of the eyes. Therefore, yellow is an eye
irritant. Babies cry more in yellow rooms, husbands and wives fight more in
yellow kitchens, and opera singers throw more tantrums in yellow dressing
rooms. Be careful how you use it. In practical application, do not paint the
walls of a critical task environment yellow. Also, do not use yellow legal pads
(but it will give you a jolt and temporarily wake your brain up), and do not
use yellow as a background on your computer monitor.
On the other hand,
since yellow is the most visible color of all the colors, it is the first color
that the human eye notices. Use it to get attention, such as a yellow sign with
black text, or as an accent. Have you noticed yellow fire engines in some
cities?
Finally, yellow is a
wonderful color, the most cheerful of the spectrum. And yellow is a symbol of
the deity in many global religions.
Some tips for practical
application:
Notice the difference between a yellow of the purest intensity and a softer
tint. Also the size of the area that any color occupies determines the color
effect. For best results, use softer tints of the hue or small quantities. A
little bit of color goes a long ways.
See
red?
Perhaps you've used
this phrase to mean that you're so angry that you literally see red. Here's a
test to see if you really see red. And it will be a bit of magic because you
will see the invisible.
Instructions:
1. Make sure the image below fills your computer screen.
2. Look at the image at a distance of 12 inches or 30 centimeters from the
screen.
3. Stare at the black dot in the middle of the red rectangle for 30 seconds.
Keep your focus on the black dot or the test will not work.
4. After 30 seconds, shift your focus to the black dot in the middle of the
white rectangle. Once again, you must focus on the black dot in the middle of
the white square or this will not work.
Begin!
Did you see red? What
did you see?
You are not
hallucinating. You saw an "after image" and there is a very
scientific explanation for it: Your eye is filled with 250,000 color decoding
cones. The 83,000 cones that are used to decode red became fatigued and over
stimulated when you focused on the red rectangle. Consequently, the opposing
cones kicked into action. You probably saw blue or bluish green, somewhat like
transparent bluish light or cellophane on the white area. (If you saw nothing,
reread the instructions and take the test again.)
The operation of the
eye is largely muscular and any excessive activity will tire it out.
Here are some practical
examples:
Let's assume that you work on an assembly line and sort red pills 8 hours a
day. If the work surface is white, you'll fatigue the eyes and get an after
image. If you use a soft muted teal as the work surface color, you'll maximize
visual efficiency. "After image" will occur with any color. Imagine
what would happen if you were in a monochromatic blue interior. Which color
would your eyes be hungry for?
What happens when chickens see red?
A company* that markets
red contact lenses for chickens (at 20 cents a pair), points to medical studies
showing that chickens wearing red-tinted contact lenses behave differently from
birds that don't. They eat less, produce more and don't fight as much. This
decreases aggressive tendencies and birds are less likely to peck at each other
causing injury. A spokesman said the lenses will improve world egg-laying
productivity by $600 million a year.
(Perhaps everything
looks red and they cannot distinguish combs, wattles, or blood. Or ...perhaps
the chickens are happier because they're viewing the world through rose colored
glasses.)
* Animalens
Inc. of
If you don't believe this, read the facts! Click here.
Here's a second test. Once again, follow the same
instructions:
1. Make sure the image
below fills your computer screen.
2. Look at the image at a distance of 8-12 inches or 20-30 centimeters from the
screen.
3. Stare at the black dot in the middle of the white star for 30 seconds. Keep
your focus on the black dot or the test will not work.
4. After 30 seconds, shift your focus to the black dot in the middle of the
white rectangle. Once again, you must focus, you absolutely must hold your
focus on the black dot in the middle of the white square after the 30 seconds
pass, or this will not work.
Begin!
What did you see?
This time the issue is
color contrast. The difference between white and black creates excessive muscular
activity which fatigues the eye. The same thing happens when you try to read
white papers on a black or dark desk. You should have seen a grey star on the
white square. If you didn't, reread the instructions, and take the test again.
Make sure you are close enough to the image.
Here are some practical
examples:
If you're in a corporate office, take this theory into the conference room or
corporate boardroom. In many instances, you'll find a dark surface, and
oftentimes highly lacquered. It may have a high tech corporate look but it will
not be conducive to the work at hand. As for your private residence, the
kitchen is a critical task environment and the same theories apply.
The scientific
explanation is as follows:
White surfaces reflect about 80% of the light, black 5%.
We take these two percentages, divide 80 by 5 and we get a 16:1 Light
Reflectance ratio. The Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) in the
If you're in a
commercial situation, consider hiring a professional interior designer who
focuses on both visual ergonomics and aesthetics to create a more positive and
productive interior environment.
Color Theory
Color
theory encompasses a multitude of definitions, concepts and design
applications. All the information would fill several encyclopedias. As an
introduction, here are a few basic concepts.
The Color Wheel
A color circle,
based on red, yellow and blue, is traditional in the field of art. Sir Isaac
Newton developed the first circular diagram of colors in 1666. Since then
scientists and artists have studied and designed numerous variations of this
concept. Differences of opinion about the validity of one format over another
continue to provoke debate. In reality, any color circle or color wheel which
presents a logically arranged sequence of pure hues has merit.
PRIMARY COLORS
Red, yellow and blue
In traditional
color theory, these are the 3 pigment colors that can not be mixed or formed by
any combination of other colors. All other colors are derived from these 3 hues
SECONDARY COLORS
Green, orange and purple
These are the colors formed by mixing the primary colors.
TERTIARY COLORS
Yellow-orange, red-orange, red-purple, blue-purple, blue-green and
yellow-green.
These are the colors formed by mixing one primary and one secondary color.
Color Harmony
Harmony
can be defined as a pleasing arrangement of parts, whether it be music, poetry,
color, or even an ice cream sundae.
In visual experiences, harmony is something that is pleasing to the eye. It
engages the viewer and it creates an inner sense of order, a balance in the
visual experience. When something is not harmonious, it's either boring or
chaotic. At one extreme is a visual experience that is so bland that the viewer
is not engaged. The human brain will reject under-stimulating information. At
the other extreme is a visual experience that is so overdone, so chaotic that
the viewer can't stand to look at it. The human brain rejects what it can not
organize, what it can not understand. The visual task requires that we present
a logical structure. Color harmony delivers visual interest and a sense of
order.
In summary, extreme unity leads to under-stimulation, extreme complexity leads
to over-stimulation. Harmony is a dynamic equilibrium.
Some Formulas for Color Harmony
There are many
theories for harmony. The following illustrations and descriptions present some
basic formulas .
A color scheme based on analogous colors
Analogous
colors are any three colors which are side by side on a 12 part color wheel,
such as yellow-green, yellow, and yellow-orange. Usually one of the three
colors predominates.
A color scheme based on complementary colors
Complementary
colors are any two colors which are directly opposite each other, such as red
and green and red-purple and yellow-green. In the illustration above, there are
several variations of yellow-green in the leaves and several variations of
red-purple in the orchid. These opposing colors create maximum contrast and
maximum stability.
A color scheme based on nature
Nature provides
a perfect departure point for color harmony. In the illustration above, red yellow and green create a
harmonious design, regardless of whether this combination fits into a technical
formula for color harmony.
Color
Context
How color behaves in relation to other colors and shapes is
a complex area of color theory.
Compare the contrast effects of different color backgrounds
for the same red square.
©Color Voodoo Publications
Red appears more brilliant
against a black background and somewhat duller against the white background. In
contrast with orange, the red appears lifeless; in contrast with blue-green, it
exhibits brilliance. Notice that the red square appears larger on black than on
other background colors.
Different readings
of the same color
©Color Voodoo Publications
If your computer has
sufficient color stability and gamma correction (link to Color Blind Computers) you will see that the small purple rectangle on the left appears to have
a red-purple tinge when compared to the small purple rectangle on the right.
They are both the same color as seen in the illustration below. This
demonstrates how three colors can be perceived as four colors.
Observing the
effects colors have on each other is the starting point for understanding the
relativity of color. The relationship of values, saturations and the warmth or
coolness of respective hues can cause noticeable differences in our perception
of color.
Illustrations and text, courtesy of
Color Logic and Color
Logic for Web Site Design
Color Voodoo Publications
Color Psychology
Color
and Culture Matters
|
|
Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride by Jan Van Eyck , 1434 The bride in this
Renaissance masterpiece wears green as a symbol of her fertility. She is
slouching in imitation of pregnancy, thus indicating her willingness to bear
children. |
The evolution of the
symbolism of green in Western culture:
In Celtic myths the
Green man was the God of fertility.
Later in the
millennium, Early Christians banned green because it had been used in pagan
ceremonies.
Nevertheless, as
evidenced by this 15th Century wedding portrait, the color green was the best
choice for the bride's gown because of its earliest symbolism.
Of note is the
continued symbolism attached to the color in the latter part of this century.
Anyone who chooses a green m & m (an American candy which contains an
assortment of different colored chocolate sweets) is sending a somewhat similar
message. Green has been reinterpreted by late 20th century American culture to
signify a state of heightened sexuality in this specific situation.
Other bride colors:
White would be an
inappropriate color for a wedding in
In
Other cultural references for green:
Green was a sacred
color to the Egyptians representing the hope and joy of Spring.
Green is a sacred color to Moslems.
Japanese Emperor Hirohito's birthday is celebrated as
"Green Day" because he loved to garden.
Green trivia:
It is said that green
is the most restful color for the human eye.
Green has great healing power. It can soothe pain.
People who work in green environments have fewer stomach aches.
Green is beneficial around teething infants.
Suicides dropped 34% when
Color
& Accident Matters
The color made me do it! You are the judge.
"I didn't intend
to break the traffic rules," he stated. "It's the stop sign. It's
green and it should be red and I went right through it." What's your
verdict?
Colors do affect our
actions and reactions in traffic as well as in interior environments. Colors
can create conditions that can cause fatigue, increase stress, decrease visual
perception, damage eyesight, increase possible worker errors, and negatively
affect orientation and safety.
The healthy,
accident-free workspace is an issue that is being redefined by new facts. The
"sick building syndrome" has made us aware of the toxic effects of
many interior elements. Ergonomics has made us aware of furniture which can
help to avoid strain and injury. Of equal importance is the role that color
plays in creating accident-free, physically and visually sound interiors.
Incorrect use of colors and patterns in interior and exterior environments can
create visual impairments and cause serious accidents.
Some examples of color as the cause of accidents and
injuries in interior and exterior environments:
1. A factory worker
reaches for the emergency lever on a machine. It is improperly color coded and
does not conform to OSHA regulations. He reaches for the wrong one.
2. An elderly man is
walking down a hallway in a hotel. The hall is carpeted with a brightly colored
pattern. He correctly perceives the colors to be "advancing", his
motor responses respond, and he trips and falls to the floor.
3. A dock worker
carrying a box on a stepped platform, slips and falls
because the edge of the work area is not distinctly marked.
4. An office worker
suffers constant headaches and visual fatigue after working at a computer
terminal. The wall color behind the monitor and glare from surrounding fixtures
are straining her eyes. After several years, her once perfect vision is
impaired.
5. An assembly line
worker is distracted by a brightly colored object within her field of vision.
She loses concentration and injures her hand.
Car
Color Stories
Does the color of your car
attract speeding tickets? Do the birds and the bees love your car? What's your
favorite color for a car? Our visitors have sent us many stories. We invite you
to hear what they have to say.
BEIGE & GOLD CARS
I once owned an 1980 "sand-beige" ford escort.
"Sand-beige" is a metallic goldish color
which looks much nicer and honey-toned in the showroom than it does on the street.
In the 4 years that I owned the car, it was hit 11 times. Each time it was
either completely stopped at a light, stop sign or parked. Apparently, this is
a hard color to see, particularly on sunny days. Now, I drive a black VW
and have not been in an accident in 5 years.
When I read the anonymous letter about the owner of the car who had been hit 11
times and I realized that it is similiar to my
situation.....
RED CARS
I used to owned a 1991 red VW Jetta
GL. My old red Jetta was scarlet red a
standard color which is bright, eye-catching and "alert" on the road.
In my four years driving this VW Jetta GL, I had been
hit many times while driving carefully, stopped at a stop sign or parked. I do
not understand why the color red should be such a target for the drivers on the
road...? But fortunately I am driving my own "sand-beige" SAAB
and I noticed that the color does makes my car less obvious on the road...so I
guess that I will have to drive more carefully on the road, preventing from the
other cars from hitting me more.
I don't believe I could ever have a car in any color but candy-apple/fire-engine
red. I don't know why. But when I'm driving a car in any other color, I
feel like someone is quietly whispering, "Shhh."
in my ear. I don't like being shushed. ;-)
I notice several stories about red cars being like moving targets that other
cars seem to *try* to hit. I pondered on this a bit, then thought about how
bull-fighters ALWAYS use a red cape to taunt the bull until he charged. Maybe
there is something to this. . . .
I've owned red cars since 1978 (6 of them). I LOVE red cars. Never had
an accident, never a ticket, drive FAST all the time. Feel really good driving
red cars! Previous colors of my cars were: silver, green, two-tone blue/white,
brown, yellow, two-tone brown, white, ochre, blue, light blue. Never felt as
good in these cars as I do in red, although my last brown car (1973 Montego) with matching brown interior made me feel most
peaceful. However, since switching to red I feel so ALIVE in my car. In fact I
now wear red shirts, red jackets, etc. Interesting about color, how it affects
a person.
My car is bright RED Grand Am with the license plate MAADONA. My sister
went with me shopping the other day and commented that people kept looking at
us. Wonder why?
A few years back when I took a business trip to
GREEN CARS
I own a dark, hunter
green Saturn. I have noticed that policemen tend to pass me by even when I
am speeding. Could this possibly be the color of my car?
"Metallic green" is the official colour
of my Mazda, which is hardly an adequate description! My baby vacillates between
black, dark blue, and green - sometimes taking on tinges of aqua, depending on
the light and her mood. Whether she reflects on me or I
on her, I'm not sure, but we trundle along in sync and harmony. Our bond seems
to scare other cars away - despite being a careless driver, we've never had a
crash!
I lived in
I have never owned a bright red or dark color of car in all my 20 years of
driving. I now drive a pale green oldsmobile.
I have had a few close calls but never a contact. . Thank heavens. I have read
in the past that red cars are like a moving target to some... I will
continue to drive lite colored cars anyway....
TURQUOISE CARS
I am different now. I drive
a sensible, white, entry-level luxury car. But once, I was wild and owned a turqouise Camaro. I will
not comment about the quality of the car, or how it drives in the snow, but I
will always remember, little girls dancing in the street as I drove by, and
telling me how pretty my aqua-colored car was. They were right!
GREY & SILVER CARS
My mother owned a silver-grey
car. We noticed a significate number of near colisions on foggy morning and dusky evening hours. The
silver seems to blend in with the road.
I will never again rent a
dark gray car. After renting hundreds of cars in various colors around the US,
It was discovered that no matter where you are, a dark gray car just can't be
seen well under low light level conditions - it blends with the road, and
consequently people cut in front of the car as if it wasn't there at all. This
happened 5 times in one day! Contrast with the road surface is essential, otherwise you are driving an invisible car. It
doesn't matter what model or sized car - just the color. Then I once had a
light blue car in a shade that it no longer available (thank heavens). I got
rid of because birds kept diving into the car thinking it was water. This would
happen even when driving the car.
YELLOW CARS
I had a yellow mazda; Bees were always a problem, I could not enjoy having
the windows down due to this. Now I have a blue oldsmobile
and Dragonflies think the hood is a pond and try to land on it over and over
again. jp USA
BLACK CARS
I owned one time a black
firebird and used to park under trees of the park in front of the house. These
trees being the home of a lot of pigeons and I had far more pigeon
"droppings" on my car than on light colored cars. May be a dark coloured ground is more "inspiring" for the birds ?
WHITE CARS
I have this thing for white
cars since I discovered they don't look that dirty even when they're filthy.
When I was shopping for my white Honda Accord, the first salesman asked me what
color I wanted. I replied, "White." Then he proceded to ask me what my second color choice was, to
which I replied, "White."
The person who commented about white cars never looking dirty even when they're
filthy is absolutely RIGHT! I am now driving my first non-white car and I've
already decided that my next car will be white again. The funny thing is that
in talking about white cars, people always make the comment that "white
cars show the dirt more." Nothing could be further from the truth! My metallic
hunter-green Jeep Cherokee always looks dirtier than my white cars
ever did. Besides, as a designer, I think that you can appreciate a car's
"lines" and good looks better without color to get in the way visually.USA
Like death and taxes, there
is no escaping color.
It is ubiquitous. Yet what does it all mean? Why are people more relaxed in
green rooms? Why do weightlifters do their best in blue gyms?
Colors often have different
meanings in various cultures. And even in Western societies, the meanings of
various colors have changed over the years. But today in the
Black
Black is the color of
authority and power. It is popular in fashion because it makes people appear
thinner. It is also stylish and timeless. Black also implies submission.
Priests wear black to signify submission to God. Some fashion experts say a
woman wearing black implies submission to men. Black outfits can also be
overpowering, or make the wearer seem aloof or evil. Villains, such as Dracula, often wear
black.
White
Brides wear white to
symbolize innocence and purity. White reflects light and is considered a summer
color. White is popular in decorating and in fashion because it is light,
neutral, and goes with everything. However, white shows dirt and is therefore
more difficult to keep clean than other colors. Doctors and nurses wear white
to imply sterility.
Red
The most emotionally
intense color, red stimulates a faster heartbeat and breathing. It is also the
color of love. Red clothing gets noticed and makes the wearer appear heavier.
Since it is an extreme color, red clothing might not help people in
negotiations or confrontations. Red cars are popular targets for thieves. In
decorating, red is usually used as an accent. Decorators say that red furniture
should be perfect since it will attract attention.
The most romantic color,
pink, is more tranquilizing. Sports teams sometimes paint the locker rooms used
by opposing teams bright pink so their opponents will lose energy.
Blue
The color of the sky and
the ocean, blue is one of the most popular colors. It causes the opposite
reaction as red. Peaceful, tranquil blue causes the body to produce calming
chemicals, so it is often used in bedrooms. Blue can also be cold and
depressing. Fashion consultants recommend wearing blue to job interviews
because it symbolizes loyalty. People are more productive in blue rooms.
Studies show weightlifters are able to handle heavier weights in blue gyms.
Green
Currently the most popular
decorating color, green symbolizes nature. It is the easiest color on the eye
and can improve vision. It is a calming, refreshing color. People waiting to
appear on TV sit in "green rooms" to relax. Hospitals often use green
because it relaxes patients. Brides in the Middle Ages
wore green to symbolize fertility. Dark green is masculine, conservative, and
implies wealth. However, seamstresses often refuse to use green thread on the
eve of a fashion show for fear it will bring bad luck.
Yellow
Cheerful sunny yellow is an
attention getter. While it is considered an optimistic color, people lose their
tempers more often in yellow rooms, and babies will cry more. It is the most
difficult color for the eye to take in, so it can be overpowering if overused.
Yellow enhances concentration, hence its use for legal pads. It also speeds
metabolism.
Purple
The color of royalty,
purple connotes luxury, wealth, and sophistication. It is also feminine and
romantic. However, because it is rare in nature, purple can appear artificial.
Brown
Solid, reliable brown is
the color of earth and is abundant in nature. Light brown implies genuineness
while dark brown is similar to wood or leather. Brown can also be sad and
wistful. Men are more apt to say brown is one of their favorite colors.
Colors of the Flag
In the U.S. flag, white stands
for purity and innocence. Red represents valor and hardiness, while blue
signifies justice, perseverance, and vigilance. The stars represent the heavens
and all the good that people strive for, while the stripes emulate the sun's
rays.
Food for Thought
While blue is one of the
most popular colors it is one of the least appetizing. Blue food is rare in
nature. Food researchers say that when humans searched for food, they learned
to avoid toxic or spoiled objects, which were often blue, black, or purple.
When food dyed blue is served to study subjects, they lose appetite.
Green, brown, and red are
the most popular food colors. Red is often used in restaurant decorating
schemes because it is an appetite stimulant.
Color and Food Matters
Blue m & m's
A few years ago, the
makers of "m & m's," an American candy which contains an
assortment of different colored chocolate sweets, added a new color to its
candy bag: Blue. Blue ? Why Blue? Although they
reported that this was the result of a vote by m & m's fans it raises a few
questions. It may very well be the last color left in the bag after the novelty
wears off.
Blue Color Fact:
Of all
the colors in the spectrum, blue is an appetite suppressant. Weight loss plans
suggest putting your food on a blue plate. Or even better than that, put a blue
light in your refrigerator and watch your munchies disappear. Or here's another
tip: Dye your food blue! A little black will make it a double whammy.
What you see above is a
delicacy prepared for the annual food party held at the end of the author's
color course at the
Dramatic results can
also be achieved by using a blue light bulb for your dining area.
Why?
Blue food is a rare occurrence
in nature. There are no leafy blue vegetables (blue lettuce?), no blue meats (blueburger, well-done please), and aside from blueberries
and a few blue-purple potatoes from remote spots on the globe, blue just
doesn't exist in any significant quantity as a natural food color.
Consequently, we don't
have an automatic appetite response to blue. Furthermore, our primal nature
avoids food that are poisonous. A million years ago,
when our earliest ancestors were foraging for food, blue, purple and black were
"color warning signs" of potentially lethal food.
and a food professional has this to
say:
Color and the appeal of
various foods is also closely related. Just the sight
of food fires neurons in the hypothalamus. Subjects presented food to eat in
the dark reported a critically missing element for enjoying any cuisine: the
appearance of food. For the sighted, the eyes are the first place that must be
convinced before a food is even tried. This means that some food products fail
in the marketplace not because of bad taste, texture, or smell but because the
consumer never got that far. Colors are significant and almost universally it
is difficult to get a consumer to try a blue-colored food -- though more are
being marketed for children these days. Greens, browns, reds, and several other
colors are more generally acceptable, though they can vary by culture. The
Japanese are renowned for their elaborate use of food colorings, some that
would have difficulty getting approval by the Food and Drug Administration in
the
Gary Blumenthal International Food Strategies
Fun ? ! ?
Toss some cooked
spaghetti noodles with diluted blue food coloring or cook the noodles in blue
colored boiling water.(Note: Use only "food
coloring" purchased in a grocery stores for these recipes. Other coloring
agents are toxic). Imagine what you can do to the sauce. Don't forget to add a
few blue m & m's for garnish.
The Meaning of
Color for Gender
by Natalia Khouw
What we see and interact with is in color,
includes both natural and built environments. About 80% of the information
which we assimilate through the sense, is visual.
However, color does more than just give us objective information about our
world-it affects how we feel. The presence of color become
more important in interior environment, since most people spend more time
inside than outside.
Is there a gender difference in response to color? Although findings are
ambiguous, many investigations have indicated that there are differences
between gender in preferences for colors. Early
investigations done by by
A review of color studies done by Eysenck
in early 1940's notes the following results to the relationship between gender
and color. Dorcus (1926) found yellow had a
higher affective value for the men than women and St. George (1938) maintained
that blue for men stands out far more than for women. An even earlier study by Jastrow (1897) found men preferred blue to red and women
red to blue. Eysenck's study, however, found only one
gender difference with yellow being preferred to orange by women and orange to
yellow by men. This finding was reiforced later by Birren (1952) who found men preferred orange to yellow;
while women placed orange at the bottom of the list.
Rikard Kuller (1976)
conducted a study on the effects of color in two opposite environments. Six men
and six women were asked to stay in two rooms, one
room was colorful and complex; while the other was gray and sterile.
Electroencephalogram (EEG) and pulse rates were recorded throughout the period,
as well as the individuals' subjective emotional feelings. The results showed
heart rates were faster in the gray room than in the colorful room. Moreover,
men were found to have stress reactions more than women. Men also became more
bored than did the women in the gray room. Kuller
also postulated that men could not achieve the same degree of mental relaxation
as women.
Thomas, Curtis, and
Another study examined the appropriateness of colors used on the walls of a
simulated domestic interior furnished in one of three styles; Georgian, Art
Nouveau and Modern. Whitfield (1984) reported that internal consistency among
women is higher than for men. When the study was broadened to include marital
status, married women achieve significantly more internal consistency in each
condition of the three styles than did the men.
More recently, Radeloff (1990) has found that
women were more likely than men to have a favorite color. In expressing the
preferences for light versus dark colors, there was no
significant differences between men and women; however, in expressing
the preference for bright and soft colors, there was a difference, with women
preferring soft colors and men preferring bright ones.
RESEARCH
Gender and the Meaning of Color in
Interior Environments
by Natalia Khouw
TESTING INSTRUMENT
The six abstract color palettes used in the Guerin, Park,
and Yang (1995) model to test the meaning of color in interior environments
were incorporated into a computer generated 3-D commercial lobby space. The
computer-generated images in the six color palettes were reproduced into
slides. Each slide illustrated the same furniture groupings with the following
differences in the color palettes:
- Interior 1 in cool hues,
light value dominant, low chroma, and high
contrast.
- Interior 2 in warm hues,
light value dominant, high chroma, and high
contrast.
- Interior 3 in warm hues,
light value dominant, medium chroma, and low
contrast.
- Interior 4 in neutral hues,
light value dominant, low chroma, and high
contrast.
- Interior 5 in cool hues,
medium value dominant, high chroma, and medium
contrast.
- Interior 6 in warm hues, dark
value dominant, medium chroma, and medium
contrast.
A questionnaire was developed from the 21 words used by Guerin, Park, and
Yang (1995) to describe the characteristics of interior environments. Subjects
were asked to respond to each cescriptor with zero
suggesting the characteristic was not present; and five that the characteristic
was largely present. In other words, as the number increased, so did the degree
of presence of the characteristic (see descriptor list below).
|
pleasant |
inviting |
exciting |
ANALYSIS
The responses were separated into men and women categories and examined based
on the responses to each descriptor. Three factors were found to emerge after a
factor analysis was performed on the 21 decriptive
words using Varimax rotation. Each factor was then
assigned a name based on the underlying contruct that
found to be in common within each set of adjective descriptors (see list
below).
Livability Factor:
pleasant, comfortable, inviting, calming, airy,
spacious, casual, open, modest, attractive.
Organization Factor:
ordered, unified, coordinated, formal,
sophisticated, expensive, rich.
Symptomatic Factor:
exciting, diverse, complex, intricate.
IMPLICATIONS
This exploratory work reinforces evidence from other
studies that have found color responses to be influenced by gender differences.
Previous studies have shown men are relatively more tolerant to achromatic
colors than women (Guilford & Smith, 1959). Meanwhile in this study found
the percentages of men rated the color palettes with chromatic relationships
higher than did women, especially the interiors with high chroma
such as Interior 2 and Interior 5. It is postulated that, in general, men are
more tolerant to the use of either achromatic or chromatic colors in interiors.
An examination of the results across all six interiors found only Interior 5
as having significantly different responses between the genders to the color
relationships applied in the interior. With its cool hue, medium value
dominant, high chroma, and medium contrast, Interior 5
was considered more favorable by men than women who felt there was too much
contrast. Researches have shown that cool hues such as blue are seen as calming
and relaxing, whereas warm hues such as red are seen as exciting and
stimulating. With red and blue as the dominant colors in Interior 5, it
suggested that the combination of this two extreme
color characteristics creates confusion and distraction, with higher frequency
of these reactions in women than men. Surprisingly, Walton and Morrison found
that the combination of red and blue, on the contrary, were most preferred by
adults (Birren, 1978).
As one contemplates the findings from a design viewpoint, a few suggestions
can be made. It is clear that each color palette has its own characteristics,
in terms of how the subjects responded to the three factors of Livability,
Organization, and Symptomatic. The factors obtained for each interior are
relevant to several different design applications. For example, the design of
retail spaces such as clothing stores targeted to attract specific genders
might wish to take into consideration the impact of color and color
relationships in the store design. The results of this study suggest that the
color palettes used in Interior 1 and Interior 3 would be the best match for
attracting men into the store because the Livability factor and the Symptomatic
factor is higher for men in those interiors than any other interiors.
Only six color treatments were tested in this study. Therefore, the study of
additional color palettes will expand the range of choices and will provide a
better understanding on gender and the color relationships in the interior
environments.
This study also suggested that, regardless of gender, people are most
sensitive to the chroma used in interior spaces.
Subjects in this study tend to dislike the warm-colored environments that had
high chroma and high contrast as in Interior 2, and
medium chroma and medium contrast, as in Interior 6.
Overall, the subjects in this study felt that warm-colored environments with
medium and high chroma were generally unpleasant and
overpowering; yet, both men and women agreed that the Organization factor and
the Symptomatic factor were present in Interior 2 and Interior 6. On the other
hand, another warm-colored environment, Interior 3 with medium chroma and low contrast, was listed as the most preffered interior and subjects considered it as appealing
and calming. In addition, Interior 3 were rated as higher on the Livability
factor and Symptomatic factor, but lower on the Organization factor; with on
women responding more positively to the Livability factor, while men responding
more positively to the Symptomatic factor.
Previous research has indicated that subjects perceived warm-colored
environments as less attractive and less pleasant than cool-colored
environments (Bellizzi & Crowley, 1983). However,
according to the evidence gathered from this study, subjects in this study
appeared to be more effected by the combination of color properties such as
hue, value, and chroma, than by the coolness or wamth alone. In other words, the subject's impressions of
color seemed to be more subtle and effected not just by the cooolness
or warmness of the color palette, but also by the calibration of value, chroma, and contrast used in the interiors.
Further research on the relationship between gender and the meaning of color
in the interior environment is suggested. Parallel interdiciplinary
studies that examine aspects of culture, human psychology and physiology would
provide a more complete understanding of gender color responses to color
relationships and the meaning of color. This exploratory study has provide data that needs broadening in order to provide the
design community with more information about the relationship of color and
meaning in the design of interior spaces.
REFERENCES
Bellizzi, J. A. &
Birren, F.
(1952). Your Color and Yourself.
Birren, F.
(1978). Color and Human Response.
Eysenck, H. J. (1941). A critical
and exprimental study of color preferences.
American Journal of Psychology, 54, 385-394.
Green, K. S. (1995). Blue versus periwinkle: Color identification and gender.
Perceptual and Motor Skills, 80 (1), 21-32.
Guerin, D. A., Park, Y., & Yang, S. (1995). Development
of an instrument to study the meaning of color in interior environments.
Journal of Interior Design, 20 (2), 31-41.
Kuller, R. (1976). The Use of
Space--Some Physiological and Philosophical Aspects. Paper presented
at the Third International Architectural Psychology Conference, University
Louis Pasteur,
McInnis, J. H. & Shearer, J. K. (1964). Relationship between color choices and selected preferences for the
individual. Journal of Home Economics, 56,181-187.
Plater, G.
(1967). Adolescent preferences for fabric, color,
and design on usual task. Unpublished master's
thesis, Indiana State College,
Radeloff,
D. J. (1990). Role of color in perception of
attractiveness. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 71, 151-160.
Thomas, L. L., Curtis, A. T., &
Whitfield, A. (1984). Individual differences in evaluation of architectural colour: Categorization effects. Perceptual and Motor
Skills, 59, 183-186.